From my personal experience, Highschool is survival of the fittest. As boys hit puberty there testosterone, as well as there, drive to show dominance over there peers skyrockets. In schools, “The fear of being seen as a sissy dominates the cultural definitions of manhood” ( Kimmel 147), and what is the best way to prove you’re not a sissy? Well, for teenage boys the answer is simple, sexual harassment or physical violence.
As most boys start to have there first real interest in women, more often then not there urge for domination or pride leads them to sexual assault or harassment. “26 per cent of girls say they experienced unwanted sexual contact at school” (McGuire 2019). Bullying, one of the main factors contributing to violence inside schools can also lead to sexual assault towards the opposite sex. Men, especially younger ones have this need to fit into the “Man Box” (defined by)(Kilmartin 6) which causes them to be more aggressive towards anyone who dares challenge there ability or requirements to be considered a “man” in the eyes of there surrounding peers which can even go as far as men forcing themselves onto the opposite sex to assert dominance or to gain some sort of “manly” requirement. Men also tend to have buildups of emotions because relationships between men “focus on doing things together and tend to be emotionally shallow.” (Kilmartin 161) stopping men from emotionally expressing themselves among each other.
Bullying between one man to another is the most common and this is because of the need to be masculine. “Masculinity refers most commonly to socially constructed expectations of appropriate behaviors, beliefs, expressions, and styles of social interaction for men in a culture or subculture at a given time.” (Kimmel 5) and sadly, the “appropriate” behavior between men would be to show everyone how much more of a man you are compared to your peers through physical violence. “41 percent of boys say they were physically assaulted at high school” (McGuire 2019) but why is this? It’s because being “different” is seen as a threat between schoolboys.
Being “different” can mean anything along the lines of having different colored hair or being less muscular or liking “feminine” things compared to your fellow brotherhood and These “different” schoolkids are the prime target for bullying and physical violence because they “challenge” the norms of other more “manly” males. “If all the other guys like playing with dolls and I don’t am I the none-manly one?”. Thoughts like these create even more of a need to show dominance through the form of bullying.
This information and knowledge of violence in schools combined with the knowledge we have collected and explored regarding masculinity creates a lot of insight into this topic. Men act the way they act in schools to prove they’re worth to each other. “I’m the strongest so I’m the manliest and because I bully the rest of you you’re less of a man for letting me beat you up”. Thoughts like these are the problem with violence in schools. As a teenager, you’ll do anything you can to fit in and that’s including physical violence.
Although violence in the hockey sphere is an important issue, I have decided to write about the Issue of the violence in school and the lack of actions taken to stop it. Coming from a high school that some could consider as ‘’dangerous’’, I was thinking that those types of behaviours are rare and represented an extreme minority in schools all around the country. In the first minutes of the documentary only, they proved me that I was wrong with numbers and testimonials that are more than shocking. 1 in 4 girls have experienced unwanted sexual touching, 1 in 7 girls said that they were sexually assaulted, 40 % of boys reported that they have been physically assaulted, etc. Marketplace’s documentary seems to have highlighted some of the problems and relations can be made with masculinity and some of its concepts to try to explain the causes of all this brutality.
The first thing that comes to mind with this documentary is the lack documentation or actions taken, more generally the lack of information on the subject for practically everyone. For example, in the case of boys being attacked. Students do not know what to do, Parents don’t know that such things happen, and Schools seems to voluntarily omit to document incidents. From the students’ perspective, I think that they refuse to talk to adults because it’s often seen as ‘’snitching’’ and getting labelled as a snitch could seriously harm their reputation and make them look like weak. For example, only half of them talks about what happens to them and some of them were told to ‘’toughen up’’ and this is concurring with the concept of the manbox ‘’ Inexpressiveness and Independence’’: Boys are expected to be strong and to be capable of enduring violence or insults without asking for help because boys are supposed to be tough and not suffer from such attacks. It is really a destructive belief as it gives aggressors impunity and the victims are doubly hurt.
But in the case of sexual aggressions, the problem seems to be a little different. When there are cases of sexual assault, not only the victims, mostly women, do not receive the help needed but they are also shamed for something over they had no control and where they were the victims. I personally think that Masculinity and its believes has something to do with it. In Brook’s case, the boy that assaulted her was also reported by two other girls came back to school after only a few days later. Victims feel abandoned by those supposed to defend them to a point where 3 out of 5 girls did not report sexual violence to their school. From what we read in this class It is possible to link it some biased notions. As Kimmel states in his writing ‘’ Masculinity’’: ‘’ The gendered identity of individuals shapes those gendered institutions express and reproduce the inequalities that compose gender identity’’. It is directly seen with the people working in the school where the incident happened. It is a good thing for a man to ‘’conquer’’ women, to get them. The example of Brook illustrates perfectly how even institutions are biased by this notion and are, consciously or not, accomplices of the wrongs done to the victims by not helping them and they reproduce the same demeaning behaviours towards women; unfortunately it is not a isolated case. It is also seen in boys altercation; for example, Jason stated that the principal hears and see things in the hallways but never does anything. It reflects how the assumption that boys will be boys and that fighting, or insulting is a normal and common thing is also anchored in formal institutions. At the end, it only results again in an aggressor’s impunity and a discreditation of the sufferers leading to a feeling of being let down and loneliness.
The aggressors, whether the victim is a boy or a girl, are also following social constructs where they are questioned about their masculinity. In his writing ‘’Defining Men studies’’, Kimmel wrote that ‘’ The combination of Antifemininity and Status and Achievement support the notion that men are inherently superior to women, and thus can be seen as justifications to sexism’’. Boys are taught that being a man means to be unlike a woman and rejects everything feminine. All of those assumption tend to make them think that aggression towards women are justified since they are superior. Those wrongs are also seen in male-male altercations where boys that have been attacked are seen as weak and are often the ones suffering from social repercussion. If a man is seen as weak, he will be compared to a woman and will be suffering from the same prejudices.
In conclusion, Violence in schools is not something rare nor isolated but institutions tend to hide it and do not take the right action in order to stop it. Masculinity and the concepts that revolves around sure have their implications in the problem. Boys have to be strong and not reports violence, Girls do not receive the adequate help after traumatising aggression and are sometimes held responsible as the institutions allows all this unfairness because of their own biases. Acknowledging the problem is already part of the solution but a lot still has to be made and, one step at a time, we will succeed.
Sources:
Kimmel, Michael. “Masculinity.” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2014. 1-5. Print.
Kilmartin and Smiler. “Defining Men’s Studies.” The Masculine Self, Sloan Publishing, 2019, pp. 1-7, Cornwall On Hudson, Accessed 25 Apr. 2020
“How To Fight For Safer Schools.” School Violence. CBC, 24 October 2019.
School violence is constantly on the rise and is not being taken as serious despite its severity. With the evolution of technology, it is becoming easier for people to speak ill of one another and can go as far as bullying through social media. Although both sexes suffer from school violence, it tends to be men who usually instigate this behavior. After studying Kilmartin’s reports throughout the semester, it is quite clear as to why males typically have these manners. Having witnessed multiple fights growing up, it is clear that men have a bigger tendency of fighting to harden their pride. In the documentary we also learn that school boards tend to hide the incidents which occurred by labeling it as something else or not making people aware that it has happened.
As mentioned in Kilmartin’s “Defining Men’s Studies”, men are usually associated with characteristics given to fighters, such as “[s]trong, [t]ough, [a]ggressive, [p]hysical, …” which manipulates their tendencies to fit this ideology. (2) We learn that being a “real man” in most societies often refers to being the toughest and most fearless individual. Due to these stereotypes, men often try and live up to the traits they “should” have and resort to violence in order to prove that they are “real men.” In most cases, fights break out from verbal disputes and are used as defense mechanisms when one feels threatened or is not capable of responding verbally. A study in “Men at Work: Jobs, Careers, and Masculinity” explained that men try to obtain the most power possible to feel superior. (Kilmartin 229) This is correlated to fighting as men try to prove they are the “Alpha Male”, untouchable by others. By doing so, they are not only perceived as more dominant but make the other males seem weaker further improving their reputation of being a “real man.”
Growing up, I have been apart and witnessed many physical fights. Most cases were slight disputes taken out of hand and resulted in someone getting hurt unnecessarily. Often times, these fights broke out over people having a crush on the same girl and would use violence to try and win them over. It was their way of demonstrating that they are “real men” and would defend as well as provide for her if they were together. Stereotypes affect the way that men perceive certain traits. In most movies, we see the attractive cheerleader falling for the tough jock which tricks men into believing that they are able to win over a female’s heart by being aggressive. In one of Deborah David and Robert Brannon’s books, they explain that “American masculinity ha[s] four primary characteristics”, one being “[s]tatus and [a]chievement” (“Defining Men’s Studies” Kilmartin 4,5). A victory from a physical fight builds up a man’s status and as a result, they continue these acts of violence in order to strengthen their reputation.
In the documentary, we learn that many school boards shy away from sharing incident reports which have occurred in order to preserve their reputation. Some schools have even gone to the extent where they do not address the number of annual incidents to students and do not approach victims of school violence. Instead, students feel as though they have no one to talk to and are scared to express situations they might have experienced. Despite awareness being brought to this topic, not many schools have taken too much action to reduces the chances of violence occurring and continue their days as though it is not an issue.
Schools need to take more action in order to reduce the ongoing violence. Measures need to be put in place to better monitor bullying and verbal offenses to prevent fights from being instigated. Although we cannot fully eliminate stereotypes, men need to find ways of not believing everything they hear. If the education system becomes more severe about punishments, violence should decrease instead and students will be able to focus more on their education rather than worrying about being harmed by others.
Works Cited
Kilmartin, Christopher, and Andrew P. Smiler. “Defining Men’s Studies.” The Masculine Self, Cornwall On Hudson, NY, Sloan Publishing, 2019, pp. 1–7.
Christopher Kilmartin and Andrew P. Smiler “Men at Work: Jobs, Careers and Masculinity.” The Masculine Self, Cornwall On Hudson, NY, Sloan Publishing, 2019, pp. 221-226,228–235.
“With great power come great responsibilities.” Of course, everyone knows it come from Uncle Ben, but I feel not a lot of people understand the meaning behind this great sentence. This is shown through the absurd violence in school.
CBC survey reveals 40% of boys are physically assaulted at school. Why is that? Well, when you are in high school you are also your teenage years, also know as the years of “who even am I?” School as a concept is a mini society, and everyone tries to find their place. But since they do not know how, they revert to the most primal behavior, the stronger is the alpha. To prove themselves, they need to beat someone else, and it is natural to go for the weak one. In those situations, everyone like to blame the adults. But I strongly believe it is the role of the students to do something. They need to be able to fix their own problem, that is what it means to be a functional human being.
One of the ways, to put it blunt, is to become strong. If you are not weak, you will not be the victim anymore. When I say to be stronger I do not specifically mean become a bodybuilder, even if it can be one way, but to develop a redeeming quality. Preferably you want something to go with your passion, if you like music learn an instrument, if you love writing develop a book. It can be anything, but what is important after that, is to make friends who have the same interests. Once you have done those two things, I am not saying it will be easy, you will not see the bullies the same ways. You become over them. You have people that love you for what you are, which develop a presence of confidence around you that stop most bullies.
You probably think I do not know what I am talking about. There is this kid who got bullied because he was smart and small, it was not going well for him. Then he started karate and eventually stop being a victim. The story is simplified but the elements are there. He found something that he was good at and find a place where he belongs. It took that victim persona out of him.
The second way is for the strong to deal with the strong. There is no doubt that a hierarchy exist between students. The higher you go the more power you gain, but more responsibilities come with it. Kilmartin describes that one of the aspects of being a man is status and achievement. I believe we can take it further; a man is defined by what he does with the status and achievement that he gains. Personally, a lot of my school friends while I was in high school never got into problems because they knew me. I have a strong personality in general and luckily I have what it takes to back it up. If someone harmed one of my friends, they would have to answer to me. And in my school everyone knew me. In the high school hierarchy, I was high, I did not bully but helped people. The best way to go higher in life is not by crushing others, but by helping everyone climb.
In his chapter on relationships, Kilmartin stated this: “Friendship is probably the most common form of relationship.” Being the most common, it is important to carefully choose our friends. Even more important in school since we will see them almost every day. Good friends can help develop in the beautiful butterfly you can become, just like bad friends can bring out the worst demon that sleep inside you. I am sure that a lot of bullies do not want to act mean, but feel pressure to do so. They also need our help.
In conclusion, people often criticism he adults for not believing them or not acting. Since we, the students, are the closest to the situations we need to act for us. There is no one better to act that one who saw the crime with his own eyes.
School violence is one of the most serious problems nowadays but are mostly visible during high school. From elementary to Cegep, I have noticed that more violence occur during high school years.When boys become men, they tend to grow the need of power and dominance. They develop aggressiveness. “It says that masculinity is characterized by willingness to take physical risks and become violent if necessary.” (Kilmartin 6) Although I have experienced seeing more fights between girls than boys, but the guys tend to get more violent. I have also noticed that not many adults have been involved with these fights. School boards tend to ignore these type of situations because they mostly care about the schools reputation. CBC stepped in this topic in order to get answers and know more on why they don’t do much about school violence.
The team at Marketplace was investigating about students harming other students, physically and emotionally. They also found out that kids don’t always tell authorities or adults what is happening to them, because they’re afraid that nothing will happen and won’t get any help.School boards tend to ignore this issue so they decided to go directly to students by doing an online survey on school violence. About 4,000 young people did a survey about their school years from elementary to high school or CEGEP.Half the respondents were between the ages of 14 and 17 while the rest were 18 to 21, young adults whose experience it in their school.(CBC)
Another survey showed that 41% of boys say they were physically assaulted at high school; 26% of girls say they experienced unwanted sexual contact at school.(CBC)When it happens in schools and isn’t addressed, students learn that sexual misconduct is acceptable, even normal. School boards are still hiding this secret while they’re not doing much, it is hard to see much progress in ensuring the students safety in schools. This just shows how much they care about their reputation instead of the kids’ safety,health and environment. The sad part is that some parents aren’t aware of what is happening in their kids’ schools. The information collected needs to be put out there in order to end school violations and assaults to protect these students.
In this generation, social media plays a huge role in teenagers everyday lives. It has also resulted in cyberbullying which will most likely lead into physical violence. Parents should be aware of what happens in their electronic devices. Parents should also be a role model to their kids, especially their sons. To help them grow into a respectful man, tell them that it’s okay to be emotional and sensitive. The way they are treated at home is what leads them to act a certain way at school and towards people. Men should be able show what true “Masculinity” is and not what society makes them see. In my opinion, school boards should offer guidance counselors that will be able to guide these students in situations like this.
In conclusion, school violence should be decreasing anda not the opposite. For many years, it has been affecting these students and will most likely traumatize them for the rest of their lives.Masculinity plays a big role in this type of situations for the boys. They should grow to learn that it’s okay to be soft or to have characteristics that “men” aren’t supposed to have. Our society needs to teach these kids that it’s okay to be one’s true self and not what society expects from them. It shouldn’t be stereotypicalized, our generation should become better for the next generations in order for them to not go through this negativity.
Resources:
Kimmel, Michael. “Masculinity.” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2014. 1-5. Print.
Schools are supposed to be an educational and social place for students to learn and interact with others. However, how come students don’t feel safe at school? It is important to know that this issue does not only happen on male or female students. But, it also happens between students and some cases also involve teachers. Yet, if the numbers are continuously increasing years by years, how come “77% of schools have reported not a single incident”? (CBC News)
Before diving into the topic, I want to explain the reasons why I chose this topic. First, I chose this topic because I consider this topic to be fairly relatable because we’re all students. Second, I chose this topic because school violence is one of the most critical problems in which it doesn’t only affect student’s physical health, but it also torments their psychological and mental health. But, I feel like schools are not fully taking actions to protect their students, meanwhile they are more focused on creating a good reputation and image to the community. Additionally, schools play an essential role in student’s life. Because students are mostly spending their times in school, the negative experiences suffered in school could lead to serious future damages. Therefore, I feel the need to bring more attention to the topic of school violence. Throughout the paper, I’ll based my arguments and facts on secondary research such as the “School Violence” documentary and I’ll also further support with several in-class readings.
First of all, school violence doesn’t limit to only physical injuries. It also includes serious issues such as sexual assault, mental harms, bullying, etc… According to the documentary, “41 per cent of boys say they were physically assaulted at high school; 26 per cent of girls say they experienced unwanted sexual contact at school; and one in four students first experienced sexual harassment or assault before Grade 7.” (CBC News) Looking at this numbers, it is frightening how this only represents a portion of the entire world. In other words, if we gather the data and statistics from countries to countries, how enormous would the numbers be? Also, while analyzing these numbers, a question has arisen: what causes school violence? Many argues that it is caused by the diversity of races and ethnicity. Other might say that it is caused by gender-based norms and so on… However, why should factors such as gender, religion, race considered as a metric to measure a person’s vulnerability to get hurt? “Social scientists use the term “racialization”, or “racialized identities”, to remind us that we are socially conditioned to observe differences in people, to group people according to those differences, and to hold beliefs about what those differences mean.” (Kwan-Lafond 225) To put it differently, we as humans, we’re the ones that have associate the different labels and prejudices on victims which has made them more vulnerable than others.
Now, let’s further analyze the concept of gender-based violence. As mentioned previously, results have shown that “41 per cent of boys say they were physically assaulted at high school; 26 per cent of girls say they experienced unwanted sexual contact at school”. Looking at the statistics, we directly see a connection between young boys and violence. Why? According to Kimmel, “Competition is one component of masculinity that seems to contribute to boys’ and men’s difficulty to achieving relational intimacy.” (Kimmel 165) Traditional male gender roles have been carrying the label of “real man”. Since a young age, men have taught to be independent and to resolve everything with their fist. Therefore, they would avoid everything that would involve emotional sharing. In other words, they believe that communicating is not an option to resolving a problem. So, they express their anger through physical violence such as the use of weapon, threatening, etc… Examining the numbers, almost half of the boys have been physically assaulted. This percentage makes me draw a correlation that a major reason of it has to do with masculinity. Young boys in school obey under a hierarchical system. In other words, boys would form and associate themselves in gangs in groups to prevent isolation. To do so, they have to challenge themselves to be dominant and independent to be accepted. Everything is based under the ideology of power and control. If they are too weak, they would be rejected and be seen as a sissy. “Violence is often the single most evident marker of manhood.” (Kimmel 148) The pressures of the label “masculinity” that society has repetitively forced on boys have led them into toxic behaviours. Why is that? Imagine the amount of pressures that you have to suffer as a boy. First, you can’t show any signs of being weak or “girly”. To put it in another way, you can’t be emotional or share your feelings with others. On top of that, you need to always keep the figure and impression of a strong, reliable, independent men no matter if it’s in school, with friends or at home. At school and with friends, you want them to perceive you as a “real man” in order to be accepted and to have the feeling of belongingness. At home, you want to meet you father’s expectation on you, so you’ll toughen up to get his approval. Therefore, when can men truly be themselves? Relating it to the documentary “Man Enough”, Tony Porter mentioned “we talk a lot about this man box, in the box is everything such as be though, be aggressive, be dominating…”. Similarly, in the “School violence” documentary, boys have commented “I was told…I needed to toughen up”. It is not a coincidence that terms such as man up, be a real man, don’t be a sissy, etc… occurs in many different platforms. They are actually signs telling us that men are suffering and that they need help. Furthermore, there are studies telling us that “young boy’s sadness and anger have led them to feel violent.” (Niobe Way)
On the other end of the spectrum, the statistics show that “26 per cent of girls say they experienced unwanted sexual contact at school”. As we could see, the nature behind these two issues are gender-based. Despite being in the 21st century, women have always been seen as inferior to men. Many women are often objectified as sexual object. In other words, they are seen as reproduction slaves. Therefore, many men were taught to be misogynistic. Since men usually associate women with sexual activities, most of the men wouldn’t bother to ask for the women’s consent. These beliefs and ideology have been passed on from descendent to descendent which has caused that women are still the target and victims of sexual harassment. Based on the documentary, “1 in 4 girls say that they face unwanted sexual touching and grabbing and 3 in 5 girls didn’t report to school because they are aware that nothing will happen.” Looking at the numbers, it is ridiculous how young girls that haven’t even met the age of 15 are being sexual assaulted by men. On top of that, it is depressing knowing that more than 60% of them don’t report to school because they are aware that schools won’t take any actions. Many of the victims have said that after coming forward, they would be the ones who are criticized and punished. Why should victims be the ones who get the blames? Considering the enormous courage that they need to gather to speak up, why are schools still ignoring their situation? Young girls have always been seen as weak and vulnerable because of their gender and of their biological differences. However, knowing this, why is schools not implementing any measures to protect students from gender-based violence?
In conclusion, while school should be a place to learn and to socialize, students are actually scared of going to school. Students are feeling unsafe and unprotected. According to the documentary “School violence”, Jayden Trudell has argued that ‘school is more survival related, I’m actually more worried about the kids than the grades”. Knowing this, why should an educational establishment be seen as a survival maze rather than a comforting learning environment? What should we do to make students feel accepted and safe at school? The first approach or measure that schools should take is probably to be more transparent about their data. This is the first step to reducing violence because we need to identify the real problem before being able to implement measures. On top of that, schools should probably change or manage their public image. To put it differently, nowadays, most of the students associate schools with discomfort and danger. Therefore, the first step to correcting that should probably changing their image in student’s heart. To do so, schools should implement programs in which it will demonstrate to students that they truly care about student’s well-being. Also, as mentioned above, educational establishment should care less about their reputation and release critical information that would actually help the violence in school situation. Lastly, is it important to respect others no matter their gender, religion and races. We are all unique and we all have flaws, therefore we should learn to accept others to be able to live collectively.
Christopher Kilmartin and Andrew P. Smiler. “No Man Is an Island: Men in Relationships.” The Masculine Self, Cornwall On Hudson, NY, Sloan Publishing, 2019, pp. 161–171.
Danielle Kwan-Lafond. Racialized Masculinities in Canada
Schools, ranging from elementary and CEGEP, contain more violence than we are aware of. Schools and school boards are more concerned about their reputation, so they keep fights and violence in the dark. Jennifer McGuire, an author, wrote an article involving school violence and why CBC is taking interest in this topic. She mentioned that the team at Marketplace was looking into students being physically and mentally harmed at school. They realized that most students experience forms of violence without seeking help or telling anyone in an authoritative position. A more comforting approach has to be taken in order for students to share their experiences and confide in people who could potentially help them.
For the sake of CBC, the firm Mission Research conducted a survey. 4,065 students, between the ages of 14 to 21, participated in this survey. More than half of the responders were at least 14 years old, but younger than 18 years old. In a direct quote from the article, “41 percent of boys say they were physically assaulted at high school; 26 percent of girls say they experienced unwanted sexual contact at school,” (CBC). However, it was also stated that, in Ontario, 77% of schools have no reported violent incidents (School Violence, 9:09). This is evidence that secrets are being kept, in order to not harm a school’s reputation. We need to care more about the safety of the students and victims, rather than how ‘good’ the school looks to the public. Many parents are clueless about the reality of violence at the school their child(ren) attend. The data needs to be accurate and shared so that a solution is found.
As we learned from the previous statistics, 41% of boys and 26% of girls experience violence at school. The violence presents itself in different ways, based on the gender of the individual. “Institutions are themselves gendered. Institutions create gendered normative standards and express a gendered institutional logic, and are major factors in the reproduction of gender inequality,” (Kimmel, 2-3). For boy students, while emotional and verbal violence may occur, violence in schools is most often in forms of physical contact. I believe this is due to the fact that men have to fight in order to be considered masculine or manly. Sadly, the violence girls experience in school is often of a sexual nature and considered unwanted harassment.
The amount of students who have experienced violence in schools higher than it should be and not much is being done about this probelm. Schools and school boards are not exposing or even recording incidents of violence. In my opinion, school boards do not even know how to deal with these situations. The problem cannot be solved if the people in charge do not know how to deal with it. Some students do come forward and they still do not receive the help that they feel is necessary.
Students should feel safe when they attend school, they are there to learn and not experience violence. It is also worried that schools do not do enough to prevent incidents. CBC is working hard to investigate more situations involving school violence. Personally, as a student who has experienced violence in school, I feel as though more should have been done. I did reach out to someone with authority, and close to nothing was done in this situation. The schools really do care more about their reputation, rather than the problem. In many cases and in mine, the school is very quick to swipe events like this under the rug.
Resources:
Kimmel, Michael. “Masculinity.” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 1-5. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 June 2014. 1-5. Print.
Lovers and Fighters | Section 22 